![]() Ghassemi A, Furkert R, Prescher A, et al. Assessing the anatomical variability of deep circumflex iliac vessels in harvesting of iliac crest-free flap for mandibular reconstruction. Kheradmand AA, Garajei A, Kiafar M, Nikparto N. Lumbar epidural venography in the diagnosis of disc herniations. Morphology of the human internal vertebral venous plexus: a cadaver study after latex injection in the 21-25-week fetus. Groen RJM, Grobbelaar M, Muller CJF, et al. ![]() Santillan A, Nacarino V, Greenberg E, Riina HA, Gobin YP, Patsalides A. Venous drainage of the spine and spinal cord: a comprehensive review of its history, embryology, anatomy, physiology, and pathology. Griessenauer CJ, Raborn J, Foreman P, Shoja MM, Loukas M, Tubbs RS. Massive presacral bleeding during rectal surgery: from anatomy to clinical practice. Vascular anatomy of the presacral space in unembalmed female cadavers. Wieslander CK, Rahn DD, McIntire DD, et al. Anatomy of the presacral venous plexus: implications for rectal surgery. The surgical anatomy of the rectum: a review with particular relevance to the hazards of rectal mobilisation. Circular suture ligation of presacral venous plexus to control presacral venous bleeding during rectal mobilization. Jiang J, Li X, Wang Y, Qu H, Jin Z, Dai Y. Presacral venous bleeding during mobilization in rectal cancer. Casal Núñez JE, Vigorita V, Ruano Poblador A, et al. Iliolumbar veins have a high frequency of variations. Kiray A, Akcali O, Guvencer M, Tetik S, Alici E. Study of the ascending lumbar and iliolumbar veins: surgical anatomy, clinical implications and review of the literature. Variations of the iliolumbar and ascending lumbar veins. Kunakornsawat S, Prasartritha T, Korbsook P, Vannaprasert N, Tungsiripat R, Tansatit T. The azygos vein pathway: an overview from anatomical variations to pathological changes. Obstruction of the inferior vena cava: a multiple-modality demonstration of causes, manifestations, and collateral pathways. MRI and venographic aspects of pelvic venous insufficiency. Computed tomographic manifestations of abdominal and pelvic venous collaterals. Multidetector CT of vascular compression syndromes in the abdomen and pelvis. Lamba R, Tanner DT, Sekhon S, McGahan JP, Corwin MT, Lall CG. Where there is blood, there is a way: unusual collateral vessels in superior and inferior vena cava obstruction. Vascular dilatation in the pelvis: identification with CT and MR imaging. Umeoka S, Koyama T, Togashi K, Kobayashi H, Akuta K. Imaging appearance and nonsurgical management of pelvic venous congestion syndrome. Bookwalter CA, VanBuren WM, Neisen MJ, Bjarnason H. The ability to accurately identify common collateral patterns by using multiple imaging modalities, with accurate anatomic descriptions, may assist in delineating underlying obstructive hemodynamics and diagnosing specific occlusive disease entities. Knowledge of the diseases involving a number of specific pelvic veins is of clinical importance to interventional and diagnostic radiologists and surgeons. A comprehensive review of the native pelvic venous anatomy and collateralized pelvic venous anatomy based on angiographic features has yet to be provided. The pelvic venous anatomy has been described in detail in cadaveric and anatomic studies, with the aforementioned collateral pathways depicted on CT and MR images in several imaging studies. These pathway categories include the deep pathway, which is composed of the lumbar and sacral veins and vertebral venous plexuses the superficial pathway, which is composed of the circumflex and epigastric vessels various iliofemoral collateral pathways the intermediate pathway, which is composed of the gonadal veins and the ovarian and uterine plexuses and portosystemic pathways. Several general categories of collateral pathways have been described. Although the pelvic venous anatomy and collateral pathways may demonstrate structural variability, a number of predictable paths often can be demonstrated on the basis of the given disease and the level of obstruction. Owing to stenosis or occlusion, both thrombotic and nonthrombotic entities in the pelvis may necessitate alternate routes of venous return. The pelvic venous system is complex, with the potential for numerous pathways of collateralization.
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